Chapter 27: Blogs, Wikis, and Social Networks

Blogs, wikis, and social networks are becoming more and more popular in today's workplace. These can be important resources if you are a technical writer. Blogs and wikis allow you to update information as you need, and social networks allow employees to connect with one another.

These types of resources have two different audiences: internal and external audience. Internal means people within an organization, while external refers to people outside of the organization. Blogs and wikis are best when people want to know how to do something, while social networking tools allow professionals to interact.

Blogs are great for showcasing technical communication, such as email threads or discussions on hobbies or mutual interests. Internal blogs are accesible only within companies and they have been proven to enhance workflow and increase morale. They are an alternative to email, and they are especially useful for team projects and collaborating. External blogs allow for customer feedback and are used as a marketing tool for the companies products or services. Tone is absolutely crucial in a company's blog though-- you want to be inviting and friendly so your blog is inviting!

RSS feeds (Really Simple Syndication) keep people updated and save time. They deliver summaries of blogs or news items to subscribers.

Wikis are a form of technical communication that allows a company to collect and keep information updated. Internal wikis can provide websites that are useful for given projects, but external wikis are open to many contributors.

When writing blogs and wikis, you should keep several guidelines in mind. First, use standard software because readers expect some similarity in all blogs. Second, keep Web guidelines in mind, and be sure to write differently for internal and external audiences. Also, be careful about posting comments on internal blogs! Blog and wiki entries should be checked periodically for credibility if anyone can post on them, and before adding to a wiki, please check to make sure all of your facts are straight.

Social networks, by definition, connect people to one another, but you can still use them for technical communication. Social networking use has increased in organizational communication, as it enhances the prominence of your organization. It can also be a powerful marketing tool. Some guidelines for using social media are also follows. It's best to write with a friendly and professional tone, and keep your ideas focused and specific. Make sure you check a licensing agreement or copyright information before posting certain videos or photos. Also, be discreet about what you do post-- omit damaging information! Finally, as always, keep your global audience in mind.

Group Discussion Question: Have you used internal social networking within a company? What did you think?

Chapter 26: Web Pages

Web pages can be better than print documents because they are easy to update and they save on printing costs. It's also incredibly easy to distribute Web pages-- simply send around the URL! Web pages are also interactive, which a print copy can never be. It should also be noted that a Web site refers to an entire site, while a Web page refers to only one page of the site.


It should be re-stated again, that your Web page should consider its audience and purpose. The Web can be accessed by anybody, so be careful about what you post. It's also pertinent to construct a purpose that will allow your reader to find exactly what they want when they visit your page-- in this day and age, if they don't find what they are looking for quickly, they'll move on!


Like I said in my last statement, people want information quickly when they search the Internet, so you should read up on several suggestions to make your web page more readable. Your page should be accessible, and contain worthwhile content. It should be sensibly arranged, with a clean and crisp page design and a good use of both visuals and special effects.


Some guidelines to keep in mind when writing web pages are as follows. It's best to chunk the information, which means that you want to eliminate longer paragraphs by breaking them up. You should write with a readable style, and keep your sentences and paragraphs short. It's best to try to catch your reader's attention in the first couple of paragraphs, and also to write in a factual, neutral tone. Choose meaningful words, and write with respect to interactive features that you may have on your page. It's most important to remember, however, that almost all Web pages can be accessed from anywhere around the world.


Designing your Web page is also critical, and the following points will make your page most effective. Try to keep an F-shape pattern, so that your top paragraphs are the most important, and additional links are in the left-hand margin. Also, use plenty of white space, and leave ample margins. Also, an unjustified right margin is easier to read. Hyperlinks are best used to direct readers to other information. Also, consistent font style and size are most appealing, and you should not underline anything for emphasis. Use ample heading as well, and use visuals to your advantage. Finally, a balanced color palette is most appealing and should reflect the theme of your page.


You can plan your Web site several ways, but I would recommend using storyboarding, working with a team, or using a software that can convert documents to Web pages.


Since Web pages will most likely have global audiences, consider global implications when writing your blog. Write in clear, simple English that is easily translatable, and avoid any direct cultural references or humor. You can also offer different language options. And your color scheme and the visuals you provide should be appropriate to a variety of cultural groups.


Web pages are not immune to ethical and legal implications as well! You may be subject to copyright issues or privacy considerations.


Group Discussion Question: How would you appeal to a global audience when constructing a Web page? I guess it depends on your topic, but what about being respectful, or picking appropriate visuals?

Chapter 25: Oral Presentations and Webinars

In the workplace nowadays, it is incredibly important to have good communication and presentation skills. Oral presentations may differ in their form, but the higher you rise in your company, the more you can expect to give oral presentation. Face-to-face communication is sometimes better than documents because it allows you to use your personality and body language to your advantage. However, oral presentations only give you one attempt to impress your audience, whereas you could revise a document numerous times before you submitted it.

When you are planning your presentation, you should analyze your audience and purpose for your oral presentation. This is actually different than when you are writing. You should do everything you can to learn about your audience beforehand, but you'll oftentimes be presenting to a mixed group. Next, you should consider what situation you will be speaking in. How much time will you have? What, exactly, is your reason for speaking? And how large will your audience be? Then, you can select a type of presentation from the following list: informative presentation (provides facts and explanations), training/instructional presentations (a how-to), persuasive presentations (attempts to gain support or change an opinion), action plan presentations (motivates people to take action), and sales presentations (inform and persuade).

There are also several types of delivery methods you can take when giving your presentation. You can memorize your speech, but this takes a long time to prepare and it's best avoided in workplace situations. An impromptu delivery is natural, but it can only be pulled off when you really know your material. Scripted delivery is meant for complex topics-- you should consider this method when you really want your presentation to be perfect. The last method is extemporaneous delivery, which is carefully planned and practiced and based on notes. Careful preparation is key to this method!

When preparing your presentation, plan systematically. First, you must research your topic carefully. Next, aim for simplicity and conciseness by boiling your material down to a few key points. Typical attention spans hold for about thirty minutes, so brief is best. It's best to also anticipate questions from your audience. Your presentation outline will contain the basic pieces: an introduction (capture your audience and give a preview), a body (use transition words to show you are moving from point to point), and a conclusion (where you tie everything together).

You should also include visuals in your presentation because they oftentimes will spark your audience's attention. The visuals that you should use will probably vary by the topic that you are presenting upon. Creating a storyboard is helpful as well. You can also fit each of your visuals to the situation you are in.  When preparing your visuals, be selective, make sure they are easy to read and understand, and use the appropriate technology to present them for the highest amount of quality. It's also important to choose the right medium for your visual, but you should keep in mind that the more technology you use, the more you will need to prepare.

Delivering your presentation is the most important part of this post. Your delivery should be rehearsed, and you should get a feel for the situation you are presenting to first. You can also cultivate a human landscape by doing the following: knowing your audience, being reasonable, displaying enthusiasm and confidence, and avoiding preaching. There are also several guidelines you can follow to keep your listeners involved and focused on your presentation. Start with a clear and engaging introduction. Next, give concrete examples, and provide explicit transitions. Then, review and interpret your information. Plan how you will use visuals that are not computer-involved, and manage how you present (your body language, your volume, and eye contact). Also, manage your speaking situation by listening to feedback, sticking to your plan, and leaving your listeners with something to remember you by.

Webinars are Web-based seminars and they allow you to deliver your presentation via the Internet, which is perfect for situations where everyone you need to talk to is not in the area. It's possible to use the following technologies within a Webinar: PowerPoint, digital whiteboards, real-time chat tools, and videos.

Group Discussion Questions: Have you ever been involved in a Webinar? Was it easy or difficult to stay involved? I find that I get easily distracted because I am in my own element still!

Chapter 24: Proposals

Proposals are a form of persuasive document that persuades a given audience to take some form of action. Like any other document, you'll want to consider your audience and purpose when constructing your proposal. Your proposal will involve the following basic tasks (Lannon, pg. 583):

1. Spell out the problem (and its causes) clearly and convincingly.
2. Point out the benefits of solving the problem.
3. Offer a realistic, cost-effective solution.
4. Address anticipated objections to your solution.
5. Convince your audience to act.

The main purpose of your proposal is to convince your audience to accept whatever plan you're proposing. A report is usually written before a proposal, and a basic proposal can be summarizing simply: a plan is offered for something that needs to be done.

Proposals can either be solicited or unsolicited. Solicited proposals are those that are requested by a manager, client, or customer, while an unsolicited proposal is one that has not been requested. Also, proposals may be informal or formal. Informal proposals can be either emails or memos (within the organization), or a letter (sent outside the organization). Formal proposals, however, are much like formal reports, which were discussed in the previous blog post.

All proposals, no matter what the type, will have one of three basic purposes: planning proposals, research proposals, and sales proposals. A planning proposal is meant to provide solutions for a problem and make suggestions for improvement. A research proposal is often a request for approval and funding for a type of study-- these are written mainly by agencies. The goal of the project is carefully laid out in these proposals. Sales proposals typically offer a product or service.

Effective proposals will often have the same elements, and reviewers will evaluate your proposal on the following aspects. Your title should be forecasting of what your proposal will include. You should also include a brief background section if your readers are already familiar with the context. A description of your solution should be next, and it describes your plan to solve the problem. You should also have a clear focus on benefits, and relate those benefits directly to your client's needs. Also, only provide honest and supportable claims-- basically, you should promise only what you can deliver. Appropriate detail is vital, too, in addition to your document being easily readable.

You should also use a tone that will allow you to connect with your readers-- you should be confident and encouraging. You can use visuals to your advantage, and tailor your page design so your document is easier to read. Supplements can also help when you have a diverse audience. However, it's important to properly cite your sources and contributors because your proposal will rarely be all of your own work.

Like every other document I have written about, your proposal will have an introduction, a body section, and a conclusion. Your introduction will be where you house your description of the problem and an immediate objective, in addition to any details that will help the reader understand the problem. The body section will include how the plan will be implemented and what costs and personnel are needed to solve the problem. Your conclusion section will reemphasize your need and encourage action to solve your problem.

Group Discussion Question: Is there an air of bias in proposal writing? Why?

Chapter 23: Formal Analytical Reports

Formal analytical reports replace memos when the topic requires a longer discussion, and they typically lead to recommendations. They include a title page, table of contents, a system of headings, and a list of references or works cited. Analytical report readers want to know information about an issue, what conclusions they should draw, and what they should do about the issue.


When constructing your report, you should always consider your audience and your purpose. Formal reports are almost always written for decision makers, and the purpose will be centered around that audience.


Workplace problem solving will oftentimes involve three parts: casual analysis, comparative analysis, and feasibility analysis. Casual analysis reveals a problem at its source, while comparative analysis rates competing items on specific criteria. Lastly, feasibility analysis will assess the practicality of an idea or plan. It is also possible to combine analysis types.


An effective analysis will often possess the same elements. Your analysis will have a clearly identified problem or purpose-- using words like "examine" or "evaluate" will let your audience know exactly what your report will be about. You should include adequate but not excessive data; your audience will dictate how much data is too much. Your data should also be accurate and balanced. Make sure that your data is fully interpreted as well-- this explains the significance of your data and the meaning of your evidence. You shouldn't let any bias cloud your evidence or arguments as well. Visuals should also be used generously, accompanying each with a fully interpreted explanation. It's best to offer valid conclusions and recommendations. A valid conclusion is based off of logic from accurate interpretations, and your recommendation tells the audience what exactly they should do. Self-assessment is also critical when you are working on a report, because the more you are involved in something, the larger your stake is in its outcome. This means that its important your report is excellent!


Your finished report will also depend upon a properly done outline. Like stated in earlier blogs, your outline will include an introduction (definition and background of the problem, description of the problem, purpose and scope of the inquiry, and the conclusions of the inquiry), body paragraphs (definition, findings, and interpretations of several topics and subtopics), and a conclusion (review of major findings, overall judgement, a course of action, and a call to action).


Formal reports will also include front and end supplements. Front matter could be a letter of transmittal, title page, table of contents, list of tables and figures, and an abstract or executive summary. End matter can include a glossary, appendices, and a references or works cited list.


Group Discussion Question: How would you go about combined different types of analyses? And in what situations would you need to combine analyses?

Chapter 22: Informal Reports

Informal reports differ from long formal reports because they are prepared quickly and they contain no background information and they require no supplements (like a title page, table of contents, glossary, works cited or index). Informal reports are meant to help people make decisions, but these decisions can vary largely. They also often take the form of a memorandum (memo), and they are usually distributed as email attachments, PDF files, or hard copies.


Informal reports often come in two types: informational and analytical. Informational reports offer information and answer basic questions of progress, activities, and meetings or discussions. They provide updates that keep an organization running from day to day. Analytical reports offer information and conclusions based upon that information. Analysis can be defined as evaluating information, accurately interpreting it, drawing conclusions on it, and making some sort of persuasive recommendation on it. These types of reports tell a reader whether a project is feasible, how to proceed, revision suggests of others, and a justification of a particular position.


Another type of informal report is a progress report that monitors progress and/or problems on a given project. They can either be written for the company, for its customers, or for the general public. In fact, many contracts within companies stipulate that progress reports are presented at given time intervals.


Periodic activity reports are like progress reports because they can be a summary of activities over a period of time, but they are different because they only summarize general activities, not project specific ones.


Trip reports focus only on business-related travel over a period of time. These are necessary because an employer need to know if the money spent on the trip was worth its outcome-- it also showcases what the employee learned on the trip.


Meeting minutes are another variation of an informal report. Minutes are the records of meetings, and they are usually distributed via email to all the members and those who are interested in the particular meeting that took place. Typically, one person is responsible for recording the minutes.


A feasibility report lets its readers make a decision about whether to an idea, plan or course of action is realistic and practical. Typically managers and decision makers will receive the feasibility reports in an office, and the report normally provides answers to questions like these (Lannon, pg. 527):

• What is the problem or situation, and how should we deal with it?
• Is this course of action likely to succeed?
• Do the benefits outweigh the drawbacks or risks?
• What are the pros and cons, and the alternatives?
• Should anything be done at all? Should we wait? Is the timing right?

Recommendation reports are those that state an affirmative position instead of examining why the approach will work. They are made for decision makers, but they tend to skip the feasibility analysis. It's important to gather the right information, however, before you make any recommendations.


Justification reports are those that justify your position following one of your recommendation. These reports are meant for people who recognized a problem and created a solution on their own-- they are persuasive, by nature, and they encourage your reader to take action.


A peer review report is the last type of informal report, and it provides a means for peers to give each other constructive criticism and feedback on their work. You should begin with the positives, and always provide some sort of constructive criticism, which must be supported with examples and advice to improve your work. When working with peers, too, it's best to close positively and diplomatically, no matter how much criticism you provided.


Group Discussion Question: Does a justification report always need to follow a recommendation report?

Chapter 21: Instructions and Procedures

Instructions are steps for completing a task or series of tasks, while procedures serve as official guidelines. Like other documents, it is important to consider your audience and purpose before you prepare your instructions. Focus on what people expect to learn from your instructions.


Instructional documents can also take on several different formats, including: manuals (instructions for many tasks), brief reference cards (fit on a single page or less), instructional brochures (distributed to a broad audience), hyperlinked instructions (can match any audience's needs), and online instructions (a digital version of a print manual).


Instructional documents can carry some serious ethical and legal implications. Some examples of faulty instructions that can create legal liability include (Lannon, pg. 488):

• Failure to instruct and caution users in the proper use of a product.
• Failure to warn against hazards from proper use of a product.
• Failure to warn against the possible misuses of a  product.
• Failure to explain a product's benefits and risks in language that average consumers can understand.
• Failure to convey the extent of risk with forceful language.
• Failure to display warnings prominently.

Effective documents will also have some of the same elements. They will include a clear and limiting title, which give a forecast of what the task will be. The content will be informed, and the procedure should be clear. Visuals promote interest, commitment, or action, as well. You should also include the appropriate level of detail and technicality, which will depend on who your audience is and what they need. You should also provide background information and appropriate details. This means you should focus on the task and not the product itself, reinforcing your statement with adequate visuals. Examples are also very helpful. It's also a good idea to anticipate when things go wrong and how to correct them. Steps should be ordered logically, and possible hazard should be noted. Instructions are normally for people who want to take immediate action, so your steps should be easy to read quickly.

Your instructions should probably have an outline as well. Outlines generally have the same elements: an introduction, a body with required steps, and a conclusion. The conclusion can be a summary, a description of the results, an offering of follow-up advice,  and troubleshooting advice.

Instructions can also be in a digital format, which is nice because the cost of printing and updating instructions is rising. It's easy and common to convert instructions to PDF files, which retain their original format. Instructions can also come of CDs, and some may be built into software programs. Video instructions may also be helpful when providing "how-to" instructions.

Due to the aforementioned legal and ethical issues that may arise, it is important to conduct usability evaluations of your instructional documents. You can set up focus groups or think-aloud evaluations to do this.

Procedures set up a set of guidelines, and they keep everyone on the same page and also help to ensure safety.

Group Discussion Question: When would you need a procedure, as opposed to just a set of instructions?

Chapter 20: Technical Descriptions, Specifications, and Marketing Materials

Just like the previous blog posts on definitions, it is important to include technical descriptions, specifications, and marketing materials in your technical document. A description is a picture with words and images, but a technical description conveys knowledge about a product's operation that will eventually contribute to its use, operation, assembly, and manufacture. An image can be visualized from a multitude of perspectives, so much your consider your audience and your purpose when constructing your description of something.


There are two types of technical descriptions: product descriptions and process descriptions.  When someone wants to learn how to use a device, they will refer to a product description. And when someone wants to understand the steps behind a complex event, they rely upon a process description.


A description can either be subjective or objective, but, with the excuse of marketing material, your descriptions must be objective. Objectivity, of course, is based solely on facts. In order to remain objective, try to stick to details that are visual and not emotional. Also, use precise and informative language; however, don't confuse precise language with complicated technical terms.


Usable descriptions will have the same string of elements included. First, the title should be clear and limiting, giving an immediate forecast. Also, the description must have the appropriate level of detail and technicality; this means you must consider how technical your audience is. You should only give the readers exactly what they need. Visuals are also necessary, and they should repeat, restate or reinforce your description. All of your drawings, diagrams, or photographs should have appropriate captions and labels, too. Your description will also have a clear sequence of events that should be organized based on your reader's understanding. A spatial sequence will parallel the reader's angle of vision, and describe the process accordingly. Functional sequencing is best when describing a given mechanism in action, and it parallels the order in which parts operate. Chronological sequencing parallels the order in which parts are assembled, and its best for visualizing terms in order of assembly.


A complicated description will almost always have an outline; the following components are usually concluded in a typical descriptive outline. The introduction will provide readers with only what they need to know to get the general picture. This could include a definition and function, history and background, purpose and audience, principle operation, major parts, and a visual that reinforces what you just stated. Next, the body section will describe each major part in greater detail. This includes the definition, size, shape and material of the part, and its subparts. Also, the function and relation of the part  to adjoining parts should be included, in addition to a mode of attachment to the overall device. Finally, a summary will show how parts interrelate, and also complete one operating cycle.


Specifications provide standards for performance, safety, and quality-- they describe products and processes. They are often used for complying with safety codes, meeting an engineering standard, or appealing to a government or legal ruling. Specifications also address a diverse audience, including: your customer, the designer, the contractor or manufacturer, the supplier, the workforce, and the inspectors.


Technical marketing materials are geared to sell products or services, and they usually differ greatly from specifications and descriptions-- they're more colorful and less formal. Technical marketing can be used in a variety of mediums, including: web pages, brochures, fact sheets, letters, and large color documents.


Group Discussion Question: What types of devices need specifications? Does every product need them?

Chapter 19: Technical Definitions

Since a technical document is, for lack of a better word, technical, it will undoubtedly contain some complex and unusual terminology. Therefore, you must learn how to appreciate the role of definition in technical communication.


Definitions explain terms and concepts that are unfamiliar to readers who are not experts on the particular field you are writing about. Precision is really important in definitions because uncommon and complex words can complicate the meaning of your document to many of your readers. It's important to consider your audience and the purpose of your document because this will shape how many of the terms you need to define. Like many of the other blog posts, your documents and definitions will have legal, ethical, societal, and global implications.


There are three categories of definitions: parenthetical, sentence, and expanded. Parenthetical definitions should be used to briefly clarify the meanings of words with more familiar synonyms in parentheses after the word. Sentence definitions are used when your term requires a more in-depth explanation. These are especially useful when you plan to use the word many times throughout your document. Expanded definitions are for a document and an audience that requires much more detail. This type of definition may be a short paragraph or it may reach several pages in length.


Several methods for actually expanding definitions are described in more detail below. Etymology describes a word's origin, and can be useful when clarifying a word's meaning. The history of a given term or concept may also be helpful in expanding a definition. Negation is expanding upon what the term does not mean, and an operating principle explains how something operates. Parts analysis creates a complete picture of a given mechanism if your document contains such items. Visuals can also be used, but they should be well labeled and credited if they are borrowed. Comparing and contrasting between new information and knowledge that your audience already knows also helps to bridge the information difference. This can also be used as a means of persuasion. Some processes or products also have required conditions, these should be included in the expanded definition. Examples are a great way of communicating things, but they should always be conformed to your audience's understanding.


Sometimes it's difficult to know where to place definitions in technical documents; a good place for definitions in printed documents is a glossary, which alphabetically lists terms and their explanations. A glossary is also nice because it doesn't break up the flow of your document, which a technical-minded person, or someone who is an expert about your topic, will like. If your medium is Web-based, try hyperlinking your definitions to the terms themselves.


Group Discussion Question: Have you read any company's technical documents? Were you able to follow them without a glossary or knowledge of the topic? I have found at my work that during my first couple of days I was at a loss for what documents meant because the only glossary was an acronym list!

Chapter 18: Résumés and Other Job-Search Materials

This chapter is perfect for college students, like myself, who will be entering the work force soon! I will explain to you how to identify your personal assets as a job applicant, and how to search for a job systematically. Creating an effective print résumé is also important, in addition to being able to adapt that print copy to a digital copy. Application letters are also important, as well as dossiers, portfolios, and web-folios. Succeeding in job interviews is also vital!


You should begin your job search by evaluating the qualities and skills that are your best. Next, you must research your specific job market. The best idea is to plan out your strategy; you ought to work step by step. Also, before you begin applying, you should learn about the industry-- this means educating yourself through books, magazines, journals and Web sites. Online resources, like Monster.com, Careerbuilder.com, and Riley Guide, are also very helpful when searching for jobs. Additionally, one of the best things you can do for yourself is learn how to network. Networking in person allows you to talk with helpful people and to seek related advice. Networking online has become more and more popular as the unemployment rate has decreased. It's a great way to stay connected and advertise yourself, virtually.


Your résumé will give the company of your an instant overview of who you are, so it's important to learn how to create an effective document! A résumé will include your contact information (how the company will reach you), your career objectives (spell out what job you actually want), your education (working backward from your most recent schooling), work experience, your personal data and interests (awards, skills and activities relative to the job you want), and and references you may have (usually 3 to 5 are acceptable). In some fields, you may also want to include a portfolio, illustrating your work.


Many programs will have résumé templates for you to follow, in terms of how to format your document. It's generally a good idea to organize your résumé to show off your greatest qualifications, skills, and experience. Most organization's today require you to submit an electronic copy of your résumé, so be prepared to digitize your document as well.


Application letters, sometimes known as "cover letters", are additions to your résumé and they explain how you fit into the job that you are applying for. It also gives you a chance to showcase some of your personality, in addition to highlighting specific qualifications or skills. Your application letter will include an introduction, body, and conclusion paragraph, that you should use to direct the audience to the purpose of your letter. It's also helpful to write to a specific person instead of addressing your letter to the entire company.


If an employer takes an interest in your résumé and application letter, they wil request more information about your past work. A dossier includes your credentials, which is your college transcript, recommendation letters, and other items that prove your past experience. A portfolio (or Web-folio) includes a statement of what you've included in your portfolio. An organized and professional-looking portfolio will set you apart, and it will also give you something concrete to discuss in your interviews.


An interview and follow-up interview will be the last step of the hiring process, and I would argue that it is the most important step. The purpose of an interview is to conclude what an employer already assumes about your capabilities based on the documents you have already presented them. Interviews come in various shapes and sizes, but preparation is key for anything. This means you should learn everything that you can about the company you want to work for, and present yourself accordingly, always following the rules of business etiquette. Practicing interview questions is always very helpful. You should think up some questions for the interviewer, and always be honest with your answers. Not only is this ethical, but you won't have to cover your lies later in your career if you do end up getting the job.


A follow-up letter should be sent after an interview as well. Your thank you letter (in print, NOT email, form) should be sent a day or so after your interview, sending the letter to each person that interviewed you. When you thank your interview, you affirm how much you actually want the position you applied for. Also, when you hear that you got the job, remember this: always accept an offer with enthusiasm and decline the offer diplomatically, explaining your reasons and talking courteously.


Group Discussion Question: What kinds of questions would you expect an interviewer to ask you, and how would you prepare for these types of questions?

Chapter 17: Workplace Letters

This blog post will help you understand when to communicate via letter as opposed to memo or email form, in addition to identifying the parts of a typical workplace letter. It's important to follow a conventional letter format, and also to appreciate the proper tone to use when writing most letters. Letters, like every other document, have global and ethical implications, but you should also know how to convey bad news in letters. Different types of letters include inquiry, claim, sales, and adjustment letters.

Letters are more formal and personal than an email or memo, and should be used in the following situations (Lannon, pg. 371):

• To personalize your correspondence, conveying the sense that this message is prepared exclusively for your recipient
• To convey a dignified, professional impression
• To represent your company or organization
• To present a reasoned, carefully constructed case
• To respond to clients, customers, or anyone outside your organization
• To provide an official notice or record (as in a letter announcing legal action or confirming a verbal agreement)

Your approach to writing your letter will be based off your audience and purpose. Also, most workplace letters have the same format. The standard pieces of your letter will be the heading and date (normally on company letterhead), an inside address (the recipient's address), a salutation (begins with "Dear" and ends with a colon), body text, a complimentary closing ("Yours truly" and "Sincerely" are most common), and your signature. There are also some optional pieces that you can add to your letter, which include an attention line (replaces a salutation; when you write to an organization), a subject line (catch a busy reader's attention), a typist's notation, an enclosure notation, a copy (or distribution) notation, and a postscript.

A couple of different elements will make your letter more appealing as well. Using the correct letter format, and also utilizing a digital template are helpful. You should also consider using quality stationary, in addition to making your margins and spacing uniform. Add headers for pages after your initial page, citing the recipient, date, and page number. The envelope is also critical-- it should be the same quality as your stationary.

When writing your letter it is important to maintain a "you" perspective, where you are prioritizing your reader's needs, wants, and feelings. You should also be polite and tactful; if you express criticism, do it in a way that conveys a sense of trust in the recipient. In addition, you should use plain English-- don't speak down to your reader. Your writing should flow naturally, like a conversation. It's best to use a direct approach most of the time, but when you are conveying bad information, take an indirect approach, and be as brief as possible.

Global and ethical considerations should also be made because a poorly written letter can damage working relationships with members of foreign companies.

Bad news is a fact of life, and just as heavily present in the workplace. Consider the following suggestions. Don't delay giving the news because it may be uncomfortable. Set a considerate tone, but give a clear and honest explanation. And also, when apology is necessary, give it immediately-- it's best to place an apology upfront. It's best to use a passive voice, and also don't explicitly blame the reader by placing "you" in front of statements. Your tone should be friendly and personal, while still taking into consideration your format and medium.

There are also several types of letters that are most common, and it's best to know the definition of each. An inquiry letter asks a question and requests a reply. Claim letters request adjustments, or they complain about a particular issue. Sales letters are persuasive by nature, and convince a current or potential customer to buy a company's product or try its services. Adjustment letters adress claims made against the company.

Group Discussion Question: I find it interesting that the book suggests using personal, "you"  language when writing letters. In most letters I have read at my work, formal tone is used. Do you agree with what the book suggests?

Chapter 16: Email and Instant Messaging

In this blog post, I will cover the parts of corporate email messages, how to organize an email message, how to write an email will professional style and tone, and how to recognize various copyright and privacy issues associated with email use. I will also address how to write an email for a global audience, and when to determine when another medium is more appropriate. Instant message is also becoming more popular, so I will address it's main purpose and uses.

Email has become the most popular form of written correspondence at the workplace, which is no surprise due to its efficiency in addressing multitudes of people quickly. Email is also great for addressing people time zones apart, and globally. It also leaves a paper trail, so that you can track the progress of a given action item. Attachments, like PDFs, can also be added simply to email messages. Email is also best for routine and simple messages around a workplace.

An email begins with a header that contains who the message is from and to, what the subject of the message is, when it was sent, and sometimes a list of people included as courtesy copies (Cc). An introductory paragraph that gets straight to the point will often be included, and the follow body paragraph(s) will explain more background details. The conclusion of an email will often invite further action, and a signature block will appear at the end of the message.

It is oftentimes difficult to control how to address your email for a specific audience because after you have sent your message, you have little control over where it will go beyond the initial list. However, email can serve a variety of purposes.  These include: scheduling meetings, brainstorming on a team project, asking people for answers, and sending electronic memos. A general rule of thumb is to believe that your email could end up in anyone's hands, so be careful what you say!

Email written at work must have a professional tone-- people often get confused between professional and personal email, which have very different styles. Professional email should be free of abbreviations, emoticons, casual phrases, and ALL CAPS or boldface.

You should also avoid using email as a scape goat to face-to-face contact. Email omits social cues and immediate feedback. It should also not be used for complex conversations. Keep email for simple conversations where face-to-face interaction is not necessarily possible.

Visuals can also be used in email, but I would recommend sticking with conservative fonts, colors, and background. Choose Times Roman or Helvetica for your font, as fancy fonts are inappropriate for workplace communication. Visuals should also not be embedded in the message, but attached separately, if the file is small enough.

As email is a digital form of communication, it can, theoretically, last forever. This means that email may be subject to copyright. The copyright, of course, belongs to the person who wrote the email. Email also has privacy issues, being that once a message is sent, it is no longer private at all. I discussed this earlier, but it should be noted again that email can't be taken back, so be careful what you write!

Instant messaging allows for faster communication within the office in real time. When using this application, you should consider whom you are talking to, not everyone may be familiar or like the ultra-quick form of communication. It's great for rapid responses, but not good for project planning or anything more detailed than a "yes" or "no" answer. You should also avoid using IM with people who are not in your organization, like customers or clients.

Group Discussion Question: How do you feel about using Instant Messaging in a corporate setting?

Chapter 15: Memos

Memos are extremely important in the workplace, and just like any document, it is important to consider a memo's typical audience and purpose. You should also understand the parts and format of a standard memo, in addition to the right tone to use. There are also several different types of memos that we should consider.


A memo is the traditional form of corporate correspondance, and they are normally only use for employee-to-employee communication. Memos can trace responsibilities, progress, and data, which means that memos can, like other documents, have legal and ethical issues. Your memo should always include the date it was created and your, or whoever created its, signature.


Like any other type of document, you must consider your audience when constructing your memo. The purpose of your memo should also be clear. It should also be noted that email, even though it is increasingly prevalent, may not have fully taken the place of paper memos. Emails are considered less formal than a memo, and emails can oftentimes be ignored because employees typically receive many every day.


A typical memo has the actual word "memo" centered at the top of the page, and it includes a heading that shows the recipient's name, sender's name, date, and subject. The body of your memo should also focus on only one topic, and your description of that topic should be concise without leaving out any necessary detail. Like any piece of writing, your memo will have a short introduction, a couple of paragraphs addressing the issue, ad a short conclusion with a resolution to the issue.


There are some questions  that will shape the tone that your memo will take (Lannon, pg. 342):

• What are we doing right, and how can we do it better?
• What are we doing wrong, and how can we improve?
• Who's doing what, and when, and where?

Memos are normally evaluations or recommendations about company policies, procedures, and the people that you work with. Deciding upon the right tone for your memo will simply be using your common sense. For example, when welcoming new employees, a friendly tone would be much more appropriate than a hostile tone. Memos can also be direct and indirect. A direct approach addresses the main topic of the memo in the subject line, which an indirect approach leaves the main topic out of the subject line and is not specific about the main point.

There are also several different types of memos, which are used depending on the given situation. A transmittal memo is an addition to a large package of materials, like a long report, a manuscript or a proposal. This type of memo is used to introduce material, and it is typically no longer than a sentence or a bulleted list. A summary or follow-up memo is a written record of a topic that has already been discussed, but has not yet been resolved yet. Routine miscellaneous memos can cover almost anything, much like its name suggests.

Group Discussion Question: If memos are mostly paper form, how do you think they are transmitted throughout the office? I am actually curious because email seems to be a lot more prevalent at the office I work at this summer!

Chapter 14: Designing and Testing Documents for Usability

Usability testing greatly helps your readers, and this point will be explored, in depth, in this chapter summary. I will also help you understand why usable designs are essential, and also how to achieve a usable design.

The end goal of your document will always be for your readers to actually be able to use your document effectively. To this end, companies routinely conduct usability testing to see how people will use the document. Information is collected in testing that will help you revise and edit your document to make it most effective. Usable documents are safe, dependable, and easy to read, and no matter what the format, your document will help your reader to three things (Lannon, pg. 325):

• easily locate the information they need
• understand the information immediately
• use the information safely and successfully

Usable design is so important that in order to keep customers and stay out of legal trouble, companies go to extreme lengths to make sure that their documents cover all probable ways it can be misunderstood or misused.

Meeting specific criteria is critical in your usable document, and these criteria can be found by asking several questions about your document (Lannon, pg. 326):

• What tasks will people need to perform to achieve their goals?
• What do we know about the specific audience's abilities and limitations?
• In what setting will the document be read/used?

When you have determined how exactly your readers will use your information, you can formulate a purpose statements which guides all of your planning and writing of your document. Considering the conditions used which your document will be used is also important. You should also research your typical audience, including what age they are, how educated they are, etc. If you spell out exactly what kind of performance you want your reader to accomplish after utilizing your document, it will be easier to lay out your document. Identifying possible risks in your document is also a great way to compensate for those risks.

A document plan is the best way to prepare for achieving usability. Any writing, testing or revision should be done after thorough planning, too. 

As always, it's important to make sure that the message you are sending in your document is ethically sound. You should also remember to respect cultural differences, which has been outlined numerous times in previous blog posts.

Digital documents sometimes have different considerations when it comes to usability. Online documents oftentimes focus on doing things rather than explaining them, this means that outlines are common in digital form. Online instructions are not persuasive because they usually guide you from step to step. Visuals are the most important part of online instructions, and online documents are meant to be interactive, not in linear sequences. Digital documents are oftentimes organized differently than their print counterparts, as well, which makes sense because the formatting requirements are completely different.

Group Discussion Question: Say you've created a document for your peers in your major at Clemson, how would you go about testing usability? What sorts of methods would you use?

Chapter 13: Designing Pages and Documents

When it comes to creating technical documents, another important factor to consider is how to design your document. In this blog post, I will help you understand why document design is important, and I will also teach you necessary design skills that may help you in the workplace today. I will help you learn how to use white spaces and margins, and also how to choose typefaces and type sizes. Color and shading are also critical, and it is important that you also know how to use headings, subheadings, and running headings. Documents that are web-based will also have different, and special, requirements.


Page design is essentially the look of the document, including the layout of words and graphics. Well-designed pages are inviting, and they help your reader understand, and also remember, your information. Page may mean a "page" on a computer screen, or it may mean a page of a report.


Work-related documents are oftentimes read only because they are required, not out of somebody's actual desire to read them. So the more appealing and understanding your document is, the more your reader will take away from it. Sometimes, busy readers will only skim your document! Print documents, especially should be well organized and accesible, because a reader's first impression of a piece of paper will almost always be based on visual, aesthetic judgement.


As the importance of page design in the modern workplace increases, so do the number of design programs available to help you create an effective document. Desktop publishing systems (like Adobe InDesign, Adobe Framemaker, or Quark) let you produce professional looking pages by combining word processing, typesetting, and graphics. Electronic publishing is also best for large and complex documents, because it allows you to create documents in a digital format for the Internet or the company intranet. Programs such as Adobe Acrobat or Apple Preview can also help you create Portable Document Files (PDF). Style sheets make sure that there is consistency over an entire document, which is especially helpful if you are collaborating with a team. You should also note that the more complex a document is, the more specific a style sheet should be. Style guides also ensure that documents company-wide look similar.


Your design specifications will be based upon the budget for your publication, and when shaping your page you should consider several suggestions. When creating routine documents, opt for black ink on low-gloss, white paper, and for documents that will be published, consider upgrading the paper's grade and quality. Paper can vary in weight, grain, and finish, but your choice in paper will depend on what artwork you include, the type of printing, and whatever aesthetic look you are going for. Longer documents should also include page numbers and either a header or footer. Grid patterns are also helpful in design because they provide not only a blueprint for your design, but a consistent visual theme as well. Well-placed white spaces can also be used to draw the reader's eye to certain aspects of your page. Also, consider that using smaller margins will crowd your page and make your information hard to understand. For standard-sized pages (8.5-by-11 inches), make sure your margins are at least an inch or an inch and a half. Your text can either be justified (flush left and right) or unjustified (flush left only); justified is preferred for books, reports and other formal material, while unjustified text is used in personal forms of communication. Line length should also be kept reasonable-- longer lengths are tiresome, while shorter lengths are bothersome. Sixty to seventy characters is considered reasonable. Documents that will be read in their entirety should also be single-spaced within paragraphs and double-spaced between paragraphs. Paragraphs should be constructed to reflect their purposes, and lists should be used to make your point easier to understand.


When you have correctly shaped your page, you can consider what font and size you want to use. Your document's purpose should shape your font selection, and if you want your document to agree visually, vary the sizes and versions of your chosen font. The standard font sizes for body elements range between 10 and 12 point, depending on the chosen font. Whichever size you choose for your body, it should be consistent throughout your document. Also, full caps should be used sparingly, as they are good for emphasis, but make longer passages extremely hard to read.


Adding emphasis to the body of your document is also essential, and can be accomplished in a couple of different ways. You can indent portions of your document for examples or explanations, or you can use horizontal lines to separate sections of a long document. Ruled lines, broken lines, or ruled boxes also set apart important information. Boldface is great for emphasizing small passages or sentences, while italics highlight words, phrases, book titles or anything else that may otherwise be underlined. Smaller font sizes are best for captions or credit lines. Color can also be used sparingly, depending on the type of document you are creating.


Headings are also important because they help the reader decide whether or not they will read the given section. You should use four types of headings: section, major topic, minor topic and subtopic. And you should use these types logically, inserting an additional lie of space above each heading.


Above all, your page design should meet your audience's specific needs and expectations. Your document should never look too difficult, or technical, to read, and, as always, you should remember its cultural implications.


The design for print and digital documents is essentially the same, but digital documents give the designer several more options. For example, each "page" of a Web document will need to stand alone, while at the same time being integrate-able with the rest of its site. Word-processing software will oftentimes let you convert your document into a Web page, but you should still consider how of the shape of these pages will be different than its print counterpart. It's most important to consider what type of digital medium your document will use before your design work is carried out because even though the general ideas will be the same, some of the specifications will differ.


Group Discussion Question: If you have seen any work in a corporate field, you probably know how true it is that most documents (especially the long ones!) are not read from beginning to end. Do you think this has something to do with the way the document was designed? What are some techniques you would use to make a document more appealing, and readable?

Chapter 12: Designing Visual Information

The ability to use visuals well in technical communication is incredibly valuable-- this means that you need to determine when to use your visuals, and how to select the correct visuals to suit your reader's preferences. You should also be able to create tables, graphs, charts, illustrations, photographs, and videos. Color use is also important, and ethical issues should be addressed as well. Cultural considerations should also be made in terms of selecting the correct visual.

No matter what medium you are creating, visuals can make or break your document's effectiveness. Visuals help illustrate the real meanings behind your writing, too. Visuals can also help the audience answer a series of questions they may be thinking (Lannon, pg. 248):

• Which information is most important?
• Where, exactly, should I focus?
• What do these numbers mean?
• What should I be thinking or doing?
• What should I remember about this?
• What does it look like?
• How is it organized?
• How is it done?
• How does it work?

Your visual will help your audience see the bigger picture in your writing, as it conveys the meaning quickly and efficiently. Technical data and information can also be difficult to understand in written form, which is where visuals like graphs, charts, and tables come into play. However, you should remember that visuals will enhance your document, not replace it-- so don't change something about your writing to accomodate a particular visual!

In order to choose the right visual for your document, you should consider a few things. The reason for using the visual is important and can vary based on the topic. If you are conveying facts, a table would probably be the best choice, but if you want your audience to be able to draw conclusions from the visual, a graph is probably better. If you are showing parts of some object, you should use some sort of diagram, or a labeled photograph. If you were to give directions, use a diagram, and relationships should be shown by a flowchart or graph. Your audience should also be considered when selecting a visual. Experts will prefer some complex schematic, will a general audience will prefer something basic.

Tables are very powerful forms of displaying specifications or comparisons. Numerical tables represent quantitative information, while prose tables show qualitative information. A table shouldn't be too complex for its audience, too.

A graph changes numbers into shapes or patterns. Graphs show approximate values and, more importantly, the overall meaning that is conveyed by those values. They are incredibly useful for showing comparisons, changes over a time period, or trends in a data set.

Bar graphs are even easier to understand, and they generally show discrete comparisons (such as year by year or month by month). Ear bar will represent a given quantity, and they tend to focus on value comparisons over a time period. A simple bar graph shows only one trend, while a multiple-bar graph can display two or three trends at once. Horizontal-bar graphs are best for showing large series of bars, while stacked-bar graphs show how much each data set contributes to the whole. 100-percent bar graphs also shows values of a part that make up 100-percent on either horizontal or vertical bars. 3-D bar graphs are also an option.

A line graph accommodates more data points than a bar graph, so it helps show the reader more information. Line graphs can be simple or multiline, and a deviation line graph extends the vertical scale below the zero baseline so that both positive and negative values can be viewed. A band or area graph shades the area under the line, and is great when you want to highlight specific information. Multiple-band graphs depict essentially the same idea.

Although the words chart and graph are used interchangeably, a chart shows relationships, quantitatively or cause-and-effect that are not plotted on standard coordinate systems. Pie charts are very easy for most people to understand, as they display relationships are percentages or parts of a whole. This makes comparison easy. Organization charts show hierarchy and relationships between different departments or elements of a project. Flowcharts trace a procedure from start to finish, and tree charts show how parts of an idea or concept relate to one another.  Gantt and PERT charts are very useful when completing project planning, as they both track the performance and scheduling of a given project. Pictographs are special because they use symbols or other graphic items, rather than just lines or bars.

Graphic illustrations are any type of visual that relies more on pictures than data or words.  Diagrams are effective because they shows how items function or how they are assembled. Exploded diagrams show how parts are assembled, while cutaway diagrams show what is inside of a given object or part. Block diagrams are essentially simplified sketches that represent relationships between particular processes or systems. Maps are also helpful because they can show comparisons or help the reader visualize a location or position. 

Photographs are sometimes better than diagrams because they give the reader a scope of everything, which is helpful when you want to see what something looks like or how something is done. Videos are another way of allowing the reader to actually see how to perform a task, and also give a sense of scale as it shows both the object and the person using it.

There are also several ethical considerations to be made when adding visual documents as well. Your visual relationships should always portray your data, and when using graphs, begin your vertical scale at zero and never compress the scales to get your point across. Your visual should also present the complete picture, while including all essential data without it being bogged down in needless information.

Visuals may also serve as a universal language, so to speak, but this only applies when the graphic in use is not misinterpreted. Colors mean different things to different cultures as well, and hand gestures may cause even more problems. Adequate researching should be done before adding any sort of visual to a document that will be viewed by a global audience.

Group Discussion Question: What is your favorite type of visual to use in a report? What aspects do you like about that particular type of visual aid?

Chapter 11: Editing for a Professional Style and Tone

The purpose of this chapter is to appreciate the role of style in any document. Style can be accomplished through clear, concise, and fluent sentences, and also through the use of precise language. A tone that will connect with your audience is also important, in addition to recognizing that various cultures have various style preferences. It is also important to realize that words can have unintended legal and ethical consequences. However, there are both benefits and drawbacks to using digital editing tools.


What you have to say in your document is just as important as how you say it, and the style of your writing is determined by your sentence construction, the length of your sentences, the way you connect your sentences, which words or phrases you choose, and the tone in which you write. Your style, however, is more than simply mechanical correctness-- it must be readable. To best help your reader understand the point that you are trying to make, you should revise your work until you have a style that is clear, concise, fluent, exact, and likable.


When editing for clarity (the element that allows your read to reach each sentence just once), there are several suggestions that you should follow. You should avoid ambiguous pronoun references, and also ambiguous modifiers, which is a word or a group of words that provides information about another word or group of words. You should also unstack modifying nouns because too many nouns in a row creates confusion and reading difficulty. As I stated in the last blog post, coherent writing means that every sentence will build upon the preceding sentence, while at the same time looking ahead to the next one. With this being said, you ought to arrange your words for coherence and emphasis. You should also use active, as opposed to passive, words whenever possible. With this being said, you should use a passive voice selectively, particularly when your audience doesn't need to know the agent. A passive voice is also preferred when you want to be indirect or inoffensive. You should also avoid overstuffing sentences, which means giving no more information in a sentence than a reader can easily process and retain.


Your document will be most effective when you explain your point in the fewest amount of words. This means that you should also avoid wordy phrases, or, in other words, phrases that can be reduced to one word easily. It is also a good idea to eliminate redundancy, which is saying the same thing twice. You should avoid needless repetition as well because this will only clutter your document and dilute its meaning. Avoiding "there" or "there is" sentences is a good practice, too-- this means that you can place the key word in each sentence at the beginning, where they can best be emphasized. An "it" opening is also unnecessary, and needless prefaces should always be deleted-- be sure to get right to the point! Weak verbs, which express no specific action, should be avoided, in addition to excessive prepositions. Nominalizations are nouns that are manufactured from verbs, but they are also harder to understand than the verbs themselves. If at all possible, you must try to make negatives positive because a positive expression is easier to understand than a negative one. You should also try to celan out clutter words, because they tend to stretch a message without adding any meaning to it. Needless qualifiers should also be deleted.


When editing your document, you should also check for fluency, which means that sentences are easy to read because they provide clear connections, variety and emphasis. In order to help with fluency, you should combine related ideas and also vary your sentence length and construction. Short sentences are best for special emphasis, too.


Sometimes the exact words are difficult to pinpoint, but your reader will most likely prefer simple and familiar sounding wording. Also, if you are writing a technical document, you should use the technical term and then define it in a glossary later. It's also a good idea to avoid useless jargon-- this means not inventing nouns or verbs by adding -wise or -ize to the end of them. You should also use acronyms selectively, because, chances are, your audience will not know the meaning of them. Clichés should also be avoided because they make the writer seem lazy or careless. Misleading euphemisms are also unnecessary, and overstatements (exaggeration) should be avoided. Generally, it is important to be specific and concrete in your writing because it makes your words easier to visualize. Analogies are also better than comparisons because they sharpen the images you are trying to convey.


Tone is a very important piece of your document because it is uniquely yours-- it's the personality that you convey between your words. Tone is created by the distance you place between yourself and the reader, and the attitude that you take towards your topic of interest. A formal or semiformal tone should be used when writing for your superiors, professionals or academics. A semiformal or informal tone is suggested when writing for your colleagues or your subordinates; an informal tone should be used when writing conversationally. You should always avoid a negative tone whenever you must convey negative, or bad, information. It is always a good practice to find out what tone your reader actually prefers before you start writing. And whenever you are in doubt, don't be too casual!


Readers also relate better when you address them directly, so use "you" and "your" whenever applicable. "I" and "we" are also best whenever you are describing yourself or your organization. Always try to emphasize the positive, and do your best to avoid an overly informal tone. Personal bias should always be left out, as well.


Several guidelines that will help you avoid sexist usage are important and described below. It's best to use neutral expressions, and to eliminate pronouns, when possible. You should use plural forms, and occasional paired pronouns, which include him or her, she or he, and his or hers. Condescending diminutive endings should be dropped, and you should use Ms. instead of Mrs. or Miss, unless you know the person personally or that they prefer a traditional title.


To avoid making offenses of any kind, there are more guidelines that you should follow. It's best to be as specific as possible when referring to something cultural or someone's national identity. Potentially judgmental expressions should be avoided entirely, and person-first language should be used when referring to people with disabilities or medical conditions. Demeaning expressions should be avoided, as well, and age-appropriate designations for both genders should be used.


Word choice may also have legal and ethical implications, some situations where this might arise are as follows: assessing risk, offering a service or product, giving instructions, comparison of your product with competitor's products, and evaluation of an employee.


Group Discussion Question: How important would you say tone is in writing? Have you ever had to alter a favored tone of yours to fit a particular type of document? How difficult was it for you?